ABSTRACT
Indoor air pollution (IAP) kills 4 million people worldwide, particularly in developing countries where many people rely heavily on biomass for energy. Globally, 3 billion people use biomass fuel for cooking and heating. Burning biomass emits carbon monoxide (CO) and other pollutants. Hence, IAP is the leading cause of non-communicable diseases in the world. Women and children suffer most of the burden of IAP because they are usually responsible for cooking.
In a rural, poor community in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, I assessed risks to human health from biomass burning. I used structured questionnaires to interview heads-of-households about their household composition, cooking habits, cooking fuel, and kitchen area. Using a CO data logger, I also measured CO emissions during cooking for 16 households with indoor kitchens. The number of doors, windows, and gaps were counted and measured to assess ventilation and subjectively categorized into a ventilation index.
vii
My results showed that adult women (n =134) were mainly responsible for cooking in the Bole community, and mean number of times residents cooked per day was 2.25 ± 0.55. The primary fuel source for all but four households was wood. Most households had outdoor cooking areas (n = 101). Mean CO reading (111.9 ± 41.4 ppm) exceeded World Health Organization recommended safe levels. Ventilation appeared to be important for reducing CO concentrations during cooking. This research reinforces that indoor pollution from biomass burning poses a risk to the human health and contributes to deforestation.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………………………..ii
READERS’ APPROVAL………………………………………………………………………………..iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………….iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………………………v
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………….vi
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………………………..x
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………………………xi
CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………1
INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………………..1
Biomass use………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
Health impacts related to IAP…………………………………………………………………………….3
Vulnerable populations…………………….…………………………………..……..4
Incomplete combustion and pollutants…………………………………………………5
Case of Nigeria ……………………………………………………………………………………………..10
HYPOTHESES …………………………………………………………………………………………….11
AIMS & OBJECTIVES ………………………………………………………………………………….11
CHAPTER 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………12
MATERIALS & METHODS ………………………………………………………………………….13
Study Site ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..13
Sampling …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
CHAPTER 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………15
RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………15
CHAPTER 4 …………………………………………………………………………………………………25
DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………………………25
CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………………….………28
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………28
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………29
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Different structures of cooking area encountered in Bole Community…….19
Table 2. Comparison of mean and maximum CO readings recorded with ventilation index………………………………..……………………………………20
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.1. The percentage of people relying on the different types of biomass fuels and their regions……………………………………………………………………………3
Fig.2. Woman in Bole Community, Adamawa Northeastern Nigeria cooking with an open fire stove………………………………………………………………..……….6
Fig.3. Process of incomplete combustion yields the poisonous gas, carbon monoxide………………………………………………………………………………7
Fig.4. Map of Adamawa State in Nigeria, with a star indicating the general location of Bole community within Adamawa.……………………………………………..……13
Fig.5. Outdoor area with thatched cover……………………………………………16
Fig.6. Outdoor cooking area without cover…………………………………….…….17
Fig.7. Indoor cooking area with aluminum roofing ……………………………..….17
Fig.8. Indoor cooking area with thatched roofing ……………………………….….18
Fig.9. Cooking period in minutes and levels of CO (ppm) measured during cooking in Docochi HH4..………………………………………………………………………21
Fig.10. Cooking period in minutes and levels of CO (ppm) measured during cooking in Docochi HH7…………………………………………………………………..….22
Fig.11. Cooking period in minutes and levels of CO (ppm) measured during cooking in four different ward ………………………………………………………..………24
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Global air quality is worsening every day due to both outdoor and indoor pollution. Much attention is directed to IAP presently, as it is considered a leading cause of respiratory diseases that cause the premature deaths of 4 million people around the world (WHO, 2016). Indoor air pollution is the emission of harmful substances in living area. Sources of IAP include materials used in furnishings, semi-volatile, and volatile compounds released by building materials, insecticides, and biomass fuels (mainly cow dung, straws, crop residues, woods, and twigs) (Zhang & Smith, 2003). The largest contributor of IAP in developing country is biomass burning. Biomass burning is the combustion of living and dead vegetation (Cole, 2001). This process emits pollutants, which gets trapped when people cook indoors hence promotes respiratory diseases (WHO, 2016).
About 7.7% of global mortality is due to IAP (WHO, 2016). In middle- and low-income countries, 10% of mortality is caused by indoor pollution. Whereas the same risk factor is 0.2% in developed countries (WHO, 2016). IAP emitted from the burning of biomass poses a greater risk to human health than any other source of pollution. Hence, mortality and morbidity in developing countries are heavily attributed to burning biomass fuel. The reason is some people, most especially women in the developing countries use substandard stoves that produces smoke, which gets trapped when used in areas with poor ventilation (Bruce, et al., 2015). Chronic exposure to smoke lowers the body’s immunity and eventually lead to respiratory diseases (Bruce, Perez-Padilla, & Albalak, 2000).
2
Although the health impact of IAP is well studied, there has been limited intervention that will bring effective solutions based on these findings. Some of the limitations are due to technology, behavior, and lack of infrastructure.
Biomass use
People use biomass as fuel for cooking and heating all over the world (Fig.1). More than 2.4 billion of the global population relies on biomass fuel for cooking and heating (WHO, 2016). In addition, most biomass users are in developing countries. In Africa, 78% of household energy is from biomass fuel (WHO, 2012). Clean source of energy is important, but poverty and inadequate power supply have made clean energy beyond the reach of people living in developing countries. Therefore, people are forced to look for cheap alternative sources of fuel, regardless of consequences on human health (NPC & ICF, 2014).
In addition to Africa, Asian countries such China, India, and Nepal also have large percentage of people using biomass fuel. In China, 80% of the rural population derives 60%-80% of its domestic energy from biomass fuel (World Energy Outlook, 2006). In India and Nepal, 72% and 88% of their respective daily fuel use is derived from biomass (Ranabhat, et al., 2015; Joon, et al., 2014)
3
Fig. 1. The percentage of people relying on the different types of biomass fuels and their regions (Credit: UNPD, 2007; WHO, 2009).
Health impacts related to IAP
Exposure to pollutants emitted from biomass fuels cause respiratory diseases, miscarriages, and some cancers. Globally, non-communicable diseases including stroke, ischemic heart diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary, lung cancer, and acute lower respiratory diseases in children resulting from IAP, cause 4 million premature deaths (WHO, 2016). For example, acute lower respiratory infections kill over 2 million children every year (Bruce, Perez-Padilla, & Albalak, 2000). IAP is also the third largest cause of deaths in the world aside from heart disease. In addition, upper respiratory tract infections, which are common in children under 5 years; chronic pulmonary disorder; and lung cancer in women are all caused by
4
indoor pollution. Smoke exposure from wood also causes inflammation of the lungs and fibrosis (Bruce, et al., 2000; WHO, 2012).
In Africa, an estimated 41,000 deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and 350,000 from acute lower respiratory infections due to IAP were recorded in 2000 (WHO, 2012). In addition, the risk of having pneumonia doubles in individuals who are exposed to indoor pollution. Every year, 2 million children in developing nations die from pneumonia and 900,000 of the deaths cases are caused by indoor pollution (WHO, 2016).
IAP kills approximately 700,000 women every year in Africa every year (WHO, 2012). In some parts of China, women exposed to IAP have developed lung cancer, even though they were not smokers (Smith, Mehta, & Maeusezahl-Feuz, 2004). Indoor air pollution is responsible for 1.5% of deaths in China annually (Baumgartner, et al., 2011).
People who have bronchitis due to tobacco smoking have similar symptoms to those exposed to biomass smoke. A person exposed to IAP from solid-fuel burning equally has a high risk of having lung cancer as those cigarette smokers. The level of exposure to IAP in some developing countries is equivalent to smoking a pack of cigarettes a day (Bruce, et al., 2000).
Vulnerable populations
Women and children get the most share of burden from indoor air pollution (Baumgartner, et al., 2011). This is because women and their daughters often do the
5
cooking in the house (Fig. 2), which exposes them to smoke from burning biomass. In Bengal, India, about 50% of women use biomass fuel to cook at least once a day, and about 65% of the women spend two to three hours cooking every day (Chakaraboty, Mondal, & Datta, 2004). The same study reported that 70% of women cook in the same room in which they sleep. Women who cook with solid fuels (e.g. biomass and charcoal) are three times more likely to acquire chronic respiratory diseases than those who cook with gas and electricity (WHO, 2012). IAP increases respiratory illness such as pneumonia, especially in young children under 5 years of age (Fullerton, Bruce, & Gordon, 2008). More than 75% of children die every year due to IAP in Africa (WHO, 2012).
Aside from women and young children, elderly people; pregnant women; fetuses; infants; and people with anemia, cardiovascular, or pulmonary diseases are particularly vulnerable and susceptible to the effects of pollutants emitted from biomass combustion indoors. In one study, adults who are 45 years above were diagnosed, and 20% of men and 10% of women were at risk having an obstructive or restrictive lung disease. (Baumgartner, et al., 2011).
Incomplete combustion and pollutants
Although many pollutants are released when biomass is burned, carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter are the key pollutants that are tested for and monitored due to the level of indoor air pollution they cause and their potential health impacts (WHO, 2012). Both are emitted as a result of incomplete combustion of solid fuels such as wood.
6
Fig. 2. Woman in Bole Community, Adamawa Northeastern Nigeria cooking with an open fire stove (Credit: Lynne R. Baker).
Incomplete combustion occurs when there is partial burning of wood due to insufficient oxygen or low temperatures. Complete combustion of produces only water and carbon dioxide as byproducts, but in the case of incomplete combustion, CO is also released (Fig. 3). Other pollutants caused by incomplete combustion include particulate matter, NO2, formaldehyde, acrolein, benzene, toluene, styrene, and 1,3 butadiene (WHO, 2016).
7
Some of these pollutants are tiny and respirable, and hence why they can cause respiratory diseases when inhaled. The severity of impact of these pollutants on human health depends on three key factors: 1) level of exposure (Bruce, et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2000; Chakaraboty et al., 2004; W.H.O., 2016.)2) amount of ventilation, and 3) type of biomass used (Smith et al., 2000 and Ezzakati et al., 2000).
Particulate matter of 10 μg in diameter (PM10) and smaller are respirable and can penetrate deep into the lungs, especially particulate matter less than 2.5μg (PM2.5) (Ezzati & Kammen, 2002). Therefore, can cause lung diseases. Frequent exposure to smoke from burning biomass is associated with lung diseases, such as acute lower respiratory disease, lung fibrosis, chronic bronchitis, and lung cancer (WHO, 2016).
Fig.
Fig. 33.. Process of incomplete combustion yields the poisonous gas, carbon monoxideProcess of incomplete combustion yields the poisonous gas, carbon monoxide
8
The mean concentrations of PM2.5 measured in Nepal households when women are cooking with biomass fuel was as high as 30,000 μg/m3. Thus, the reason why chronic bronchitis is found to be the same for both men smokers and women non-smokers (Ranabhat, et al., 2015) . This concentration far exceeded the permissible maximum of no more than 3,000 μg PM2.5 over a 24-hour period, according to World Health Organization (WHO) (WHO, 2016).In another study, children in a Navajo community seen at Public Health Service Indian Hospital, who lived in households that use biomass fuel were exposed to PM10 levels of 65μg and above. These children thus have a seven-times greater risk of developing lung disease (Robin, 1996).
Carbon monoxide
Along with particulate matter, CO poses a notable threat to human health when it is released indoors. CO is a tasteless gas that has no color or odor, and it is slightly soluble in water. It has lower density than air and binds easily with blood hemoglobin. CO has higher affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen (Cullis & Hirschler, 1989).
When CO enters the body, it forms carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) with blood hemoglobin, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity and causes hypoplasia- dis order that leads to underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Hypoplasia can in turn lead to brain and heart disorders depending on the level of CO poisoning (Prockop & Chichkova, 2007). Frequent use of wood without completely burning it can cause acute or chronic CO poisoning (Prockop & Chichkova, 2007).
9
Safe level of carbon monoxide for 15minutes, 1hour and 8 and per day is 81.1ppm, 28.4 ppm, 8.11ppm and 5.68ppm respectively (WHO, 2000). However, levels of 20-50 ppm and higher are measured during cooking with biomass, thereby increasing the COHb levels between 1.2% and 2.5% (Bruce, Perez-Padilla, & Albalak, 2000). Severity of COHb damage depends on the amount of exposure to carbon monoxide; the alveoli ventilation, which is the exchange of gas between alveoli; the external environment, and the duration of exposure. Carbon monoxide poisoning also causes brain disturbances – any abnormality in the function or structure of the brain; heart infections; headache; vomiting; nausea; and, at higher levels, fatal coma and death (Prockop & Chichkova, 2007).
Carbon monoxide exposure that results to COHb levels of 5.1–8.2 % can slow down thoughts and impair movement of the body. This include, reduced coordination, tracking and driving ability, and impaired vigilance and detection of small environmental changes (Benignus, 1994). In addition, COHb levels of 5-20% can interfere with cognitive performance. COHb level of 2-13% in a fetus can cause reduced birth weight (Bruce et al, 2000). These authors also reported that exposure to biomass smoke during pregnancy can result in impaired lung formation in infants.
People who have heart diseases are very sensitive to CO. Elevated levels of COHb causes atherosclerotic narrowing of coronary arteries. This restricts blood flow to the myocardium, and prevents physiological compensation for lowered oxygen delivery. Again, COHb levels of 2.5–3.0% shorten time of onset of exercise in patients with angina pectoris (WHO, 2000).
10
Case of Nigeria
As the most populous nation in Africa, the West African country, Nigeria, has a large number of people living in rural areas (NPC & ICF, 2014). In 2013, 37.9% urban population and 83.3% of rural population in Nigeria relies on solid fuels for cooking and heating (NPC & ICF, 2014). Fewer than 5% of Nigerians have access to clean household fuel such as liquid gas electricity that does not emit pollutants (WHO, 2014). Many people who use solid fuels in the rural parts of Nigeria have little or no knowledge of the health impacts of burning these fuels indoors. revealed that most people who cook indoors with solid fuel use unvented stoves with no chimney (NPC & ICF, 2014). These stoves lead to the emission of pollutants, such as particulate matter and CO, because there is little or no ventilation.
Although there are many studies on biomass and indoor air pollution in developing countries, this topic is critically important for Nigeria given the large rural Nigerian population that relies on biomass for energy. In this study, I assessed the level of indoor pollution in households in a rural dryland community of Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, by measuring carbon monoxide levels in households with indoor kitchens. I also investigated the amount ventilation of these indoor spaces, household cooking habits, and who within these households was most affected by IAP.
11
HYPOTHESES, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Null Hypotheses: Carbon monoxide levels do not exceed harmful levels in rural households in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.
Research Hypothesis: Carbon monoxide levels exceed harmful levels in rural households in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.
Aim:
To assess levels of exposure to indoor air pollution from biomass burning in rural households in Bole community, Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.
Objectives:
• To identify the main sources of fuel used for cooking and heating in households.
• To evaluate ventilation of household rooms where cooking activities occur.
• To measure carbon monoxide exposure in households.
• To compare levels of carbon monoxide (CO) measured with World Health Organization’s CO exposure guidelines.
• To create local awareness about indoor air pollution.
• Based on the results, to recommend alternatives to whom? to biomass for fuel.
DISCLAIMER: All project works, files and documents posted on this website, UniProjectTopics.com are the property/copyright of their respective owners. They are for research reference/guidance purposes only and some of the works may be crowd-sourced. Please don’t submit someone’s work as your own to avoid plagiarism and its consequences. Use it as a reference/citation/guidance purpose only and not copy the work word for word (verbatim). The paper should be used as a guide or framework for your own paper. The contents of this paper should be able to help you in generating new ideas and thoughts for your own study. UniProjectTopics.com is a repository of research works where works are uploaded for research guidance. Our aim of providing this work is to help you eradicate the stress of going from one school library to another in search of research materials. This is a legal service because all tertiary institutions permit their students to read previous works, projects, books, articles, journals or papers while developing their own works. This is where the need for literature review comes in. “What a good artist understands is that nothing comes from nowhere. All creative work builds on what came before. Nothing is completely original.” - Austin Kleon. The paid subscription on UniProjectTopics.com is a means by which the website is maintained to support Open Education. If you see your work posted here by any means, and you want it to be removed/credited, please contact us with the web address link to the work. We will reply to and honour every request. Please notice it may take up to 24 – 48 hours to process your request.
