ABSTRACT
Globally, human-wildlife conflict is increasing due to increased encroachment by human populations into natural habitats. The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) is often involved in human-wildlife conflict in Africa. This conflict is a major threat to hippos, which are classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, has a relatively small number of hippos – estimated at 300 individuals. I investigated the perceptions and attitudes of local people toward a resident population of hippopotami in the Kiri Dam reservoir on the Gongola River in northeastern Nigeria. I used semi-structured interviews (n = 3) with government officials and key informants and questionnaires (n = 69) with residents in two villages (Kiri and Baban Daba). I found that very few respondents (7%) saw benefits to the presence of hippos in the area, while nearly all respondents said hippos cause problems, such as damaging crops, disrupting fishing, and threatening lives. Chi-square tests and logistic-regression analysis showed that respondents who did not favor the protection of hippos or prefer their presence in the area were likely to be
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residents who had farms along the river, particularly maize farms. Although most people have negative opinions of hippos, local residents do not actively hunt hippos, and most residents are aware of laws against killing hippos. Future research should concentrate on hippo crop-raiding behavior in relation to crop location and crop type. In addition, conservation efforts may benefit from this research, as well as awareness campaigns about living near hippos, small-scale ecotourism, and fencing to protect people.
Keywords: Africa, agriculture, attitudes, conservation, crop raiding, Hippopotamus amphibious, human-wildlife relations, perceptions
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii
READERS’ APPROVAL ……………………………………………………………………………………….. iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………………………………….. v
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. vii
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x
LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi
INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
HYPOTHESES, AIMS, & OBJECTIVES ……………………………………………………………. 9
CHAPTER 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10
METHODS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
Study Site ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
Data Collection & Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Ethical Guidelines ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 14
CHAPTER 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Respondent Characteristics ………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Knowledge about Hippos ……………………………………………………………………………………… 16
Advantages & Disadvantages of Hippos ………………………………………………………………… 16
Protection & Conservation of Hippos ……………………………………………………………………. 17
CHAPTER 4 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20
DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
CHAPTER 5 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23
CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
APPENDIX I ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
APPENDIX II ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25
APPENDIX III ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
APPENDIX IV ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 32
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1a. Statistically significant categorical variables related to whether respondents thought hippos should be protected (n = 68) ……….……….……….……….………….18
Table 1b. Statistically significant categorical related to whether respondents preferred the presence of hippos in the Kiri reservoir (n = 49) .……….…… .……….……….………18
Table 2. Coefficient estimates of the parameter age in a logistic regression model.……….19
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1. Hippos are mega-herbivores that consume primarily grass. However, they are known to raid crops, especially at night when they are most active………….….5
Fig. 2. Problem hippo killed at the Dadin-Kowa Dam, Gombe State, August 2015…7
Fig. 3. Settlements along Kiri reservoir, adjacent to the Kiri Dam…………………10
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Because interactions between humans and wildlife have played a role in the evolution of humankind, conflicts between humans and wild animals have been in existence since they have shared resources and landscape (Lamarque et al., 2009). Ancient humans were hunter-gatherers, and they relied on nature such as plants and animals surrounding them. Humans and wild animals interacted in various ways; for example, wildlife was a major source of food (protein) for human populations. The interests of humans and those of wildlife often clash, however, resulting in negative interactions. Such interactions between humans and wildlife are often referred to as human-wildlife conflict.
Human-wildlife conflict results from competition between human and wildlife populations over space or resources (Lamarque et al., 2009), such as when the requirements of human populations overlap with the requirements of wildlife populations (IUCN, 2005). Although the word “conflict” has various meanings, the way “conflict” is defined and understood determines the nature of human-wildlife conflict. Human-wildlife conflict often reflects a struggle between two or more parties or groups over some perceived wanted factors, resulting from differences in actions of the parties involved (Onuoha, 2008). An example of such is the struggle over crops between elephants (Loxodonta africana) and farmers (De Boer & Baquete, 1998; Geoffrey, 2015; Granados & Weladji, 2012; Naughton, Rose, & Treves, 1999; Nyhus & Tilson, 2004; Vidya & Thuppil, 2010; Warner, 2008), when elephants raid farms and damage or destroy crops cultivated by farmers.
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The major forces driving human-wildlife conflict differ from one location to another, but when studied as a whole, these forces can be classified into two categories: 1) factors attributed to human population growth and human activities, and 2) factors related to an increase in wildlife abundance. Human population growth is at the core of most environmental problems, as well as a major cause of negative human-wildlife interactions. This is particularly so in Africa, which has the fastest population growth in the world; more than half of the world population growth between now and 2050 is expected to come from Africa (UN, 2015). One African nation, Nigeria, is the 7th most populous country in the world, and it is expected to be the third largest country in the world by 2050 (UN, 2015).
Human population growth results in the conversion of forests, savannas, and other ecosystems into agricultural sites and urban cluster (Distefano, 2005). Wildlife is thus affected by habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. Animal populations grow only when there are resources to sustain them; human populations are not an exception to this rule. The increasing human demand for meat is one reason for a global increase in domestic livestock populations. This growth may lead to competitive exclusion of wild herbivores. Increasing human population growth in Africa has led to human encroachment into wildlife habitats, restricting species into smaller and fewer habitat patches and fueling competition with local communities (Distefano, 2005). This means that wildlife more often comes into contact with humans, and this leads to increased conflict.
Conflict between human and wildlife come in different forms. The most common forms attacks on humans, crop raiding, and property destruction by wildlife
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(Lamarque et al., 2009). Negative human-wildlife interactions have impacts and consequences. Crop destruction, where wild animals consume, trample, or otherwise damage crops, is the most prevalent problem posed by human-wildlife interaction across Africa (Lamarque et al., 2009). One of the major impacts of crop raiding is that it threatens local people’s source of food for both subsistence and commercial needs (Quirin & Dixon, 2012).
In Rwanda, forest-dwelling primates, especially the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and Cercopithecus monkeys, caused an average 10-20% loss in household income as a result of crop raiding (McGuinness & Taylor, 2014). In a study carried out in four villages in Uganda, 11 species of large vertebrate damaged 6.1 km2 over three farming seasons (Webber & Hill, 2014). The elephant and common hippopotamous (Hippopotamus amphibious) are the most destructive crop raiders in Africa. They particularly affect the livelihoods of subsistence African farmers because they cause significant damage (Lamarque et al., 2009). Farmers find it difficult to deal with raiding by elephants and hippos because these animals are large; aggressive; and, in the case of hippos, nocturnal. They cause highly visible damage, and governments provide little or no compensations in most cases (Lamarque et al., 2009). Even though reports of crop raiding by elephants and hippos are common, the damage caused by smaller mammals, such as baboons (Papio spp.), bush pig (Potamochoerus porcus), and monkeys (Cercopithecus spp.), may be even greater. Compared to hippos, for instance, these species are less conspicuous, and thus reports of raiding by these smaller mammals might be underreported (Dunham, Ghiurghi, Cumbi, & Urbano, 2010; Granados & Weladji, 2012).
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Crop-raiding activities by wildlife are also a major obstacle to wildlife conservation efforts, affecting both unprotected and protected areas. In Yankari Game Reserve in northeastern Nigeria, crop raiding by elephants in villages surrounding the reserve poses the biggest challenge to conservation of animals in the reserve (Geoffrey, 2015). In response to destruction caused by the elephants, for instance, communities living around the reserve retaliate by killing elephants.
At times, wild animals directly attack humans, and these attacks may result in injuries or even death. Both carnivorous species, such as lions (Panthera leo), and herbivorous species, such as hippos, attack humans. In Africa, crocodiles (Crocodylus spp.), lions, elephants, and hippos pose the most serious threat to human lives (Lamarque et al., 2009). Until 2011, hippos accounted for one-quarter of all deaths caused by wildlife across the continent (Kendall, 2011). Today, attacks by crocodiles are more common and account for the most deaths caused by large animals in Africa. It has been suggested that the increasing number of attacks by crocodiles is due to the abundance of crocodiles across the continent (Lamarque et al., 2009). In Mozambique, 118 people are killed by wildlife every year on average, and crocodiles are responsible for two-thirds of these deaths (Dunham et al., 2010).
Property destruction by wildlife can also lead to human-wildlife conflict. Crocodiles attack and consume livestock, for example, thus leading to loss of a food and income source for local people (Treves & Naughton-Treves, 1999). In Mozambique, one study showed that, in decreasing order of magnitude, lions, crocodiles, hyenas, and elephants killed 301 livestock animals (Dunham et al., 2010). In addition, wildlife can disturb economic activities such as fishing, and crop raiding may lead to smaller
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crop harvests and thus loss of income (DeBoer & Baquete, 1998; Granados & Weladji, 2012; Hill, 2015; Pérez & Pacheco, 2006; Thapa, 2010). These economic impacts are augmented by social costs. For example, children may stay home from school to guard farms, and both children and adults may lose sleep to stay up a night to watch over farms (Barua, Bhagwat, & Jadhav, 2013).
Although crocodiles are currently responsible for more human deaths than are hippos, hippos more often raid crops (Fig. 1). Regardless, hippos are dangerous animals that pose a threat to human populations living or working near them, especially along rivers where hippos occur (Dunham et al., 2010). Attacks by hippos are not often deliberate; these attacks tend to occur when humans are protecting their crops, when humans encounter an animal on their pathway or near water in the night, or when humans come in contact with injured animals or whose sense is impaired (Lamarque, et al., 2009). Hippos can cause substantial damage to crops when raiding
Fig. 1. Hippos are mega-herbivores that consume primarily grass. However, they are known to raid crops, especially at night when they are most active. Photo: Dreamscope Photography
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farms at night. Humans may react by killing the specific problem animals or hunting any of the animals to retaliate or reduce the total population of the animals (Kendall, 2011). Hippos, in addition to elephants and crocodiles, are thus the most frequently killed animals as a result of conflict (Dunham et al., 2010). For example, the ratio of hippos killed to the number of their human victims is one of the highest relative to ratios for other wildlife. For every human killed by a hippo, 2.3 hippos are killed by people (Dunham et al., 2010).
In terms of their ecological impact, hippos have both positive and negative effects. For example, they may damage water resources, hippos are known to contaminate drinking water with organic matter, or transmit diseases to humans and livestock. Hippos have been associated with the spread of anthrax in Queen Elizabeth and Lake Mburo National Parks in Rwanda (Wafula, Patrick, & Charles, 2007). On the other hand, the large body size of hippos makes them important key players in ecosystems; they create habitat for small species and are a keystone species (Mosepele, Moyle, Merron, Purkey, & Mosepele, 2009, as cited in Mason, 2013). Daily movement of hippos from water to land form paths creating an avenue through which water flows during the dry season. During droughts, these flooded paths turn to lagoons and side pools that provide habitat to small fishes. Hippos are also known to be important vectors, transporting millions of tons of organic matter from their feeding ground to aquatic water annually; this organic matter improves the performance of some of the aquatic animals and plants in the water (McCauley et al., 2015).
In Nigeria, hippos face increasing pressure due to the country’s rapidly growing human population, coupled with increasing habitat loss and degradation, pollution,
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and other threats. The distribution of hippos in Nigeria is restricted to the drier northern region (Lewison & Oliver, 2008), including Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State (Geoffrey, 2015), Dadin Kowa Dam in Gombe State (Umar, 2015), and Kiri Dam in Adamawa State (Igidi, 2014). In the Kiri Dam area, some local communities reported the destruction of farms, disturbance of fishing activities, as well as injuries and killings caused by hippos, and the government then gave permission to kill problem animals (Igidi, 2014). In August 2015, news media reported that the Nigerian military killed a problem hippo in Dadin-Kowa Dam after local people complained to the state government that the hippo killed people and destroyed crops and fishing tools (Umar, 2015) (Fig. 2).
Populations of hippos have declined by the range of 7 to 20% over the last decade as a result of habitat loss and illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and ivory, as estimated by IUCN Redlist (Lewison & Oliver, 2008). Following the international ban on elephant ivory in 1989, illegal trading in hippo ivory sharply increased: Between 1991 and 1992, 27,000 kg of hippo teeth were exported; this is double the amount exported in 1989 and 1990. The dependence of hippos on freshwater also makes them more vulnerable to habitat loss given the increasing pressure on and demand for freshwater across Africa (Cosgrove Fig. 2. Problem hippo killed at the Dadin-Kowa Dam in Gombe State, August 2015. Photo: Bima Ismail
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& Rijsberman, 2000). Consequently, hippos are now classified as a threatened species and were listed as Vulnerable in 2006 (Lewison & Oliver, 2008).
Using mixed social research methods, I investigated hippo-human conflict at the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State. My goal was to determine the perceptions and views of hippos by local people living around the Kiri reservoir. I sought to better understand how local communities view and respond to problems caused by hippos and whether they perceived any benefits due to the presence of hippos. In addition, I made comparisons with a similar study conducted in the area in 2007 (Teneke, 2007). Finally, I intended this study to contribute to the mitigation measures to reduce hippo-human conflict at the Kiri Dam reservoir and to improve protection of the hippo population at this site.
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HYPOTHESES, AIMS, & OBJECTIVES
Null Hypothesis: Presence and behavior of hippos do not influence the attitudes and perceptions of the local communities living near the Kiri Dam and reservoir.
Research Hypothesis: Presence and behavior of hippos lead to negative attitudes and perceptions of the local communities living near the Kiri Dam and reservoir.
Aims: To investigate the perceptions and attitudes of local communities toward a resident population of hippopotami in the Kiri Dam reservoir, Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.
Objectives:
To characterize the local human population living around the Kiri reservoir.
To identify the number of people whose farming or fishing activities have been affected by hippos.
To determine the magnitude of human injuries and deaths caused by hippos.
To assess if local communities see any benefits to the presence of hippos.
To assess the acceptance of local communities to the presence of hippos.
To understand how local people cope with or respond to hippo behavior.
To determine the awareness of the local community about wildlife laws in relation to hippos.
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