ABSTRACT
Both water pollution and water scarcity are increasing global problems and particularly serious challenges for Africa. According to the World Health Organization, more people lack access to safe water in Africa than anywhere else in the world. To meet the growing demand for water worldwide, dams and irrigation systems are often built, particularly to provide water for agricultural needs. However, dams, especially large dams, may promote the spread of water-associated diseases. Completed in 1982, the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, supports the water needs, which at times includes drinking, for many people living around the reservoir. To assess overall water quality and presence of disease indicators in the Kiri reservoir, and to establish baseline data for future monitoring, I collected water samples (near-shore and open-water sites) in October 2016. I evaluated the samples for physico-chemical and biological characteristics and compared some values to national and international standards for drinking water. I found microorganisms that indicate contamination, such as Escherichia coli, in all near-shore samples and eggs of parasitic worms, including Schistosoma hematobium and most likely Echinococcus granulosus, in most near-shore samples. Aside from
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average turbidity (727.4 NTU), most of the physico-chemical parameters I measured did not exceed international standards. Overall, I found that the Kiri reservoir is not heavily polluted; however, some important parameters were not measured in this study, including heavy metals, nitrates, and pesticides. Future research should concentrate on these parameters, indicator bacteria, and helminths, and a monitoring program should be established.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………………………..ii
READERS’ APPROVAL……………………………………………………………………………….iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………….iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………………………v
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………vii
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………………………………….x
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………………..xi
CHAPTER 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………1
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Diseases & Water Quality …………………………………………………………………………… 5
Dams, Reservoirs, & Disease ……………………………………………………………………. …8
Case of Nigeria ……………………………………………………………………………………….. .10
HYPOTHESES ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
AIMS & OBJECTIVES ……………………………………………………………………………. 16
CHAPTER 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
MATERIALS & METHODS …………………………………………………………………….. 17
Study Site ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Sampling …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
CHAPTER 3 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
CHAPTER 4 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
CHAPTER 5 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 32
CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Some neglected tropical diseases caused by parasitic worms (helminths) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Table 2. Physico-chemical and biological parameters tested in this study, site of test (on-site or in the laboratory), as well as methods and materials used…………………..22
Table 3. Maximum values for drinking water for parameters measured and tested in this study………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Table 4. Final sampling sites, number of samples, and measurement depths……….. 24
Table 5. Sampling locations and measured physico-chemical parameters from this study…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26
Table 6. Near-shore sampling locations, detected bacteria in samples, and results by method (media)…………………………………………………………………………………………27
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1. Decline in volume of Lake Chad from 1963 to 2007………………………………….2
Fig. 2A. Countries with populations that have access to improved water sources, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004……………………………………………………..4
Fig. 2B. Countries with population that have no access to sanitation, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004………………………………………………………………………….4
Fig. 3. Two major dams occur along the Gongola River, part of the Upper Benue River catchment……………………………………………………………………………….17
Fig. 4. Kiri reservoir is surrounded by settlements whose residents engage in farming, livestock rearing, and fishing……………………………………………………………..18
Fig. 5. Longitudinal zonation of reservoirs and water-quality conditions generally found in these zones……………………………………………………………………………………….21
Fig. 6. Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosus………………………………………………….30
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Essential for all life on Earth, water is under threat globally. Both the quantity and quality of water are of serious concern to global leaders, government officials, urban planners, and rural communities, among others. Water is a topic of special concern to public health professionals, who observe, study, and attempt to resolve water quality and scarcity issues affecting millions of people on the planet. Water quality and scarcity present an increasingly complex challenge given the effects of climate change. For example, in the future some regions may experience increased or decreased precipitation and higher temperatures – leading to increased flooding or droughts. These conditions can further degrade water quality and worsen water pollution (Bates et al., 2008).
In Africa, as human populations rapidly expand, the demand for water increases; however, water sources are becoming scarcer. Approximately 40% of Africans live in dry sub-humid, semi-arid, and arid regions. The amount of water accessible per individual in Africa is far beneath the global average and is declining; annual per-capital availability of water is 4,000 cubic meters compared to a global average of 6,500 cubic meters (UNEP, 2010).
One example is the near-disappearance of Lake Chad, which borders four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad. Lake Chad is the biggest lake in the Chad Basin and one of the giant water bodies in Africa. Due to high demand for water for
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agriculture, demand from growing human populations, and the effects of climate change, the lake has contracted dramatically. Between 1963 and 2001, the surface area of Lake Chad declined from 25,000 km2 to less than 1,350km2 (Coe & Foley, 2001) (Fig. 1).
In addition to increasing water scarcity in Africa and globally, water quality is a growing public health and environmental problem, especially given the role of water in human health, agriculture, industry, etc. Impacts of water quality are most significant in low- to middle-income countries. Many people live in countries that are ill equipped to cope with public health and environmental crises related to water. A large number (35%) of health-care facilities in low- and middle-income countries have no water supply or soap for hand washing, and only 19% of these facilities have improved sanitation (WHO, 2015).
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Decline in voluDecline in volume of Lake Chad from 1963 to 2007.me of Lake Chad from 1963 to 2007.
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Diarrhea remains a major contributor to childhood mortality and morbidity, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Bates et al., 2008). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2015), diarrhea caused by lack of access to safe drinking water, poor sanitation, or poor hygiene habits kills more than 840,000 people annually. This does not account for deaths due to such water-borne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. Additionally, fecal matter contaminates water sources on which at least 1.8 billion people rely for drinking (WHO, 2015).
Regarding access to clean water, there has been progress, however. In 2010, the Millennium Development Goal related to drinking water (MDG 7) was achieved – the proportion of people globally without sustainable access to safe water was cut in half (WHO, 2015). Nevertheless, many African populations still lack access to improved water sources (Fig. 2A), and millions of people around the world have access only to severely polluted or contaminated drinking water sources. This problem is especially potent in Africa, where more than 50% of the total population in many countries lacks access to sanitation (Fig. 2B).
In Africa, even where boreholes and water sanitation facilities are available, they may not be properly maintained or managed. Due to the high demand for water, these water sources may become polluted and may not be tested as often as necessary. Poverty and lack of alternative water sources often force people to use or drink water even when it is contaminated. When water is scarce, people tend to use whatever source is available, even if the quality is poor. For example, Okoro et al. (2015) reported that residents from a town in the semi-arid region of northeastern Nigeria buy water from water vendors, collect water from unsafe/unimproved
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sources, or rely on free water sources such as reservoirs and unprotected wells. In the
Fig. 2A.
Fig. 2A. Countries with populations that have access to improved water sources, in Countries with populations that have access to improved water sources, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004.percentage (%) of total population in 2004.
Fig. 2B.
Fig. 2B. Countries with population that have no access to sanitation, in percentage (%)Countries with population that have no access to sanitation, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004.of total population in 2004.
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sources, or rely on free water sources such as reservoirs and unprotected wells. In the region, lack of access to improved drinking water sources has notably affected peoples’ health, economic productivity, and quality of life (Okoro et al., 2015).
Diseases & Water Quality
Lack of or poor sanitation or other environmental factors may lead to contaminated water sources. When testing for water quality, particularly for drinking water, public health officials focus on bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. Regarding bacterial contamination in water, microorganisms such as coliform bacteria are often looked at as indicators of water quality. Coliform bacteria are Gram-negative, rod-shape bacteria found in the environment, human feces, and warm-blooded animals. Total coliform count is the most common test used for bacterial contamination; it gives a general indication of the sanitary condition of water sources (Bartram & Pedley, 1996).
Presence of coliform bacteria in water indicates possible presence of pathogenic microorganisms. The group (coliform) consists of thermo-tolerant/fecal coliforms and bacteria of fecal origin (such as E. coli). Thermo-tolerant/fecal coliform are facultative anaerobic bacteria that grow at 44–44.50C. Presence of this sub-category of coliform bacteria in water indicates fecal contamination. This is because almost all thermo-tolerant bacteria are found in the gut or digestive tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. The presence of thermo-tolerant bacteria such as E. coli is considered a solid evidence of fecal contamination in water (Bartram & Pedley, 1996).
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Diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths are the most common health risks that are linked to drinking water. In 1986, 28 billion cases of disease episodes were due to 10 major water-borne diseases, and these diseases were caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. People at risk of disease caused by these microorganisms are usually children who play in contaminated water and people living in unhygienic or water-scarce regions. All these microorganisms have high or moderate health impacts, with various levels of persistence in water. However, it is unknown or unclear how persistent some strains of viruses are in water bodies. Bacteria, on the other hand, easily multiply in water (Gadgil, 1998).
Helminths are parasitic worms, several of which commonly contaminate water. Two notable water-associated helminths are Schistosoma parasites, which cause schistosomiasis, or bilharzia, and Onchocerca volvulus, which causes onchocerciasis or river blindness (Table 1). A third helminth, Dracunculus medinensis, has been all but eliminated globally (WHO, 2016; Table 1). Particularly problematic for Africa is schistosomiasis. Nigeria, the most populous African country, has the highest number of cases worldwide (Dawaki et al., 2015).
Almost 85% of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) in sub-Saharan Africa are caused by helminths (parasitic worms) (Table 1). Hookworm infection has been the most prevalent neglected tropical disease, affecting nearly 50 million schoolchildren. This infection results in anemia for 7 million pregnant women worldwide. After hookworm, schistosomiasis is the second most prevalent disease caused by helminths. An estimated 192 million people are reportedly infected with schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa. Neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan
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Africa affect 500 million people from low-to-middle income families and lead to severe disability for infected individuals (Hotez & Kamath, 2009).
Table 1. Some neglected tropical diseases caused by parasitic worms (helminths). Disease Technical Name Common Name Pathogen Responsible Symptoms/Effects
Dracunculiasis*
Guinea worm disease
Dracunculus medinensis
Itchy rash, blisters that make the worm visible, vomiting, difficulty breathing, incapacitates affected individual for 4—8 weeks
Onchocerciasis
River blindness or Robles disease
Onchocerca volvulus
Severe itching, bumps under the skin, blindness
Schistosomiasis
Bilharzia or snail fever
Schistosomes, notably Schistosoma mansoni, S. hematobium, S. intercalatum
Bloody urine and stool, abdominal pains, diarrhea
Echinococcosis
(cystic echinococcosis; alveolar echinococcosis)
Hydatid disease (cystic echinococcosis)
Echinococcus granulosus, E. multilocularis
Causes slow growth of unnoticed, but harmful cysts in liver and lungs, or causes tumors in the liver, lungs, and brain
Lymphatic filariasis
Elephantiasis
Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and B. timori+
Extreme swelling in legs and arms, alters lymphatic system, leads to severe disability and social stigma
Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs)
Roundworm, whipworm, hookworm
Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale
Affects intestine and lungs, shortens breath, causes severe fever, may lead to anemia, anorexia, and lack of iron and protein in gut
*An effective eradication program for dracunculiasis has all but eliminated this disease; in 2015, there were only 22 cases worldwide, the lowest number of reported cases ever (WHO, 2016).
+Of all the three pathogens, W. bancrofti is responsible for 90% of cases of elephantiasis. Humans are the only known host of W. bancrofti. Elephantiasis is one of the world’s most disabling and stigmatizing infections (CDC, 2016).
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Dams, Reservoirs, & Disease
Certain environments may promote the occurrence or spread of disease or other environmental problems. For example, reservoirs (man-made lakes formed where rivers have been dammed) established primarily to supply water for irrigation may lead to a greater incidence of water-borne, water-contact, and water-related diseases, as well as such environmental impacts as waterlogging (too much water) and salinization (increased salt content) of soils on irrigated land (FAO, 1997).
Reservoirs created for irrigation can exacerbate diseases endemic to a region, or they may introduce new diseases. In Africa, the most common diseases linked to irrigation are malaria, bilharzia (schistosomiasis), and river blindness (onchocerciasis) (FAO, 1997). Irrigation waters promote disease vectors, including mosquitos, which spread the malaria parasite; snails, which are intermediate hosts that carry Schistosoma parasitic worms that cause bilharzia; and blackflies (Simulium sp.), which transmit parasitic worms that cause river blindness.
According to the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), there are 58,402 large dams worldwide (large dams are impoundments >15m high or storing >3 million m3 of water1). Large dams have a significant impact on the malaria burden in sub-Saharan Africa (Kibret et al., 2015). Communities that are nearer to large-dam reservoirs have a higher incidence rate of malaria than those communities located at a greater distance from reservoirs. Each year in sub-Saharan Africa, the presence of these large dams is associated with at least 1.1 million malaria cases,
1 Classified by the International Commission on Large Dams.
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while another 56,000 cases, at a minimum, are expected due to planned dams. For about 15 million people, dams also increase the risk of malaria (Kibret et al., 2015).
As with malaria, large dams may affect the spread of schistosomiasis and other parasitic worms. In Africa, Asia, and Latin America, schistosomiasis affects more than 200 million people (Hopkins et al., 2008), and at least 37 million people suffer from onchocerciasis (Amazigo et al., 2006). The incidence and prevalence of these diseases have been linked to large dam construction and reservoir creation (Chapman, 1996). In Ghana, for example, people living near the Lake Volta reservoir were severely afflicted by parasitic worms, causing the spread of onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and dracunculiasis (Thanh & Biswas, 1990, as cited in Chapman, 1996). Following completion of the Aswan low dam in the early 1930s in Egypt, a dramatic rise in the prevalence of schistosomiasis was reported in only three years – from 6% to 60% (FAO, 1997).
In a meta-analysis of water resources development, Steinmann et al. (2006) concluded that populations of intermediate host snails that carry Schistosoma parasites increase with the creation of reservoirs and associated irrigation systems, particularly within Africa. Out of 779 million people at risk of schistosomiasis, nearly 14% reside near irrigation systems or large-dam reservoirs (Steinmann et al., 2006).
While the evidence for the impact of large dams contributing to the spread of schistosomiasis is widespread, the impact of small dams (5–15m high) is not well established (Grosse, 1993). Across Africa, particularly in drier or semi-arid regions, people have built small, earth-filled dams to provide water for dry-season irrigation.
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While the evidence for the impact of large dams contributing to the spread of schistosomiasis is widespread, the impact of small dams (5–15m high) is not well established (Grosse, 1993).
Across Africa, particularly in drier or semi-arid regions, people have built small, earth-filled dams to provide water for dry-season irrigation. In two communities near Kano in northern Nigeria, the source of schistosomiasis transmission was attributed not to recently built small dams, but instead to rain-fed pools used by children to bath. The pools harbored snail species that were a common vector for S. haematobium. Thus, although the dams extended the range of the snails, the prevalence of schistosomiasis did not noticeably increase (Betterton et al., 1988, as cited in Grosse, 1993). Similarly, despite predictions, a small earth-filled dam built in 1977 at Ruwan Sanyi in Kano State, northern Nigeria, did not lead to increased infection rates of schistosomiasis in male schoolchildren (Pugh et al., 1980, as cited in Grosse, 1993).
Although there is limited evidence linking schistosomiasis and small dams, one example from Mali is often cited. Increased prevalence of schistosomiasis was associated with small, earth-filled dams in Gabon County, Mali; as reservoir water was generally not used for drinking in the region, serious health risks to the local human population did not extend beyond schistosomiasis (Long et al., 1992).
Case of Nigeria
Having the largest population on the African continent, Nigeria is particularly challenged by water quality and scarcity. The country’s rapid growth in human
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population has led to many associated environmental impacts, including water and air pollution, biodiversity loss, habitat loss and soil degradation. Poor water quality and water scarcity in Nigeria result in hundreds of cases of cholera each year and severely impact peoples’ quality of life and productivity.
Apart from the rapid increase in human population growth in Nigeria, other human activities and environmental factors severely affect the environment and water quality. For example, in the oil-producing southern region of the country (the Niger Delta), severe environmental degradation has resulted from years of oil-related pollution (Etim et al., 2013). In another example, a river in Plateau State, central Nigeria, was so polluted that all the chemical parameters of the river water were above the World Health Organization’s maximum permissible limits (Njoku & Keke, 2003).
Since independence, Nigeria has invested in providing access to safe drinking water sources to rural communities, but the country still faces many obstacles. Almost 70% households in the rural part of the country do not have access to safe water. Instead, these households rely on free sources, such as reservoirs and lakes, which may be contaminated. Governmental intervention toward providing safe water supplies includes the provision of wells and boreholes to rural communities, but still, these sources do not adequately meet the water needs of many communities (Ishaku et al., 2011).
According to WaterAid Nigeria, 57 million Nigerians do not have access to safe water, and 63 million collect water from nearby open-water sources. As a result of
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lack of sanitation or drinking water sources, 45,000 children under the age of five die every year in Nigeria. Especially in the semi-arid and arid regions of Nigeria, women and children spend many hours each week collecting water for their families. During the dry season, women may be forced to dig in dry riverbeds to collect water for their families (WaterAid Nigeria, 2016 ).
However, there has been improvement regarding access to improved drinking water in both urban and rural parts of Nigeria. From 1990 to 2011, the overall percentage of people having access to improved drinking water rose from 47% to 61%. However, the number of people with piped water in their home premises dropped from 14% in 1990 to 4% in 2011. In addition, as a result of rapid increase in human population in urban parts of Nigeria, only 70% of the total population had access to safe drinking water in 2011. Compared to 1990, the urban part of the country experienced a 6% decrease in the number of people having access to improved drinking water sources (Tetra Tech, 2015).
Nigeria also contained or contains the most cases of dracunculiasis (before eradication – WHO, 2016), onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and lymphatic filariasis (Njepuome et al., 2009). Although Nigeria has made notable progress on controlling or eradicating dracunculiasis and onchocerciasis (Njepuome et al., 2009), some 30 million people suffer from schistosomiasis – more than other country globally (Hopkins et al., 2008). In Nigeria, by the year 2000, an estimated 101 million people were at risk of contracting schistosomiasis – nearly 17% of the total number of people at risk worldwide. Nigeria is also one of the few countries where three species
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of Schistosoma parasites occur: Schistosoma mansoni, S. intercalatum, and S. hematobium (Chitsulo et al., 2000).
At the end of 2016, Nigeria had 52 large dams. Health impacts related to some of these dams have been recorded. For example, several studies have shown a relationship between dam and reservoir creation and the transmission of schistosomiasis in the semi-arid regions of northern Nigeria (Bello et al., 2003; Oladejo & Ofoezie, 2006; Duwa & Oyeyi, 2009).
Completed in 1982, the Kiri Dam in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, is classified as a large dam, though not by much at 20m high. The reservoir (which covers about 110km2) is surrounded by rural human settlements. The region had a population density (people/km2) of 305.7 in 2000, up from 172.7 in 1982 when the dam was built (Keiser et al., 2005). Compared to some other large dams in northern Nigeria, Kiri reservoir supports many more people. For example, in 2000, the population density estimate (people/km2) for the Dadin Kowa Dam area in Gombe State was 102.3, and it was 48.0 for the Kainji Dam area in Niger State. And yet, these dams have much larger reservoirs than Kiri Dam: 300km2 for Dadin Kowa and 1,260km2 for Kainji (Keiser et al., 2005).
Both Adamawa and Gombe States are within the northeastern zone of Nigeria, which is among the poorest regions of the country. Compared with the other five country zones, the northeast has the lowest percent of households with an improved source of drinking water (50% compared to a country average of 61%), and the lowest percent of households with an improved, unshared sanitation facility (18% compared to a
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country average of 30%) (NPC & IPC, 2014). Although communities around the Kiri reservoir may have boreholes, the boreholes are not always functional and must supply water for many people. Consequently, communities rely on the Kiri reservoir for a variety of agricultural and domestic uses, including, at times, for drinking.
Local people are primarily involved in fishing and farming, and farming activities occur near the shoreline (Radda & Baker, 2015). The reservoir has a high degree of sedimentation. According to the Upper Benue River Basin Authority, which manages the dam, no studies of overall water quality have been conducted at the Kiri reservoir for about 25 years. However, some research at the site has shown environmental impacts, including erosion and pollution due to a significant loss in natural vegetation (Zemba et al., 2016). Other research indicates that water quality may be better than expected. For example, although Milam et al. (2012) found heavy metals, such as lead, cadium, and iron, in tissues of fish collected from Kiri reservoir, they noted that the levels were below WHO recommended guidelines and thus concluded that the water was not notably polluted with heavy metals.
Given the number of people who rely on the reservoir, and the present uncertainty about status of the water at the site, I investigated water quality at Kiri reservoir to determine the public health and environmental implications of human use of this reservoir. The aim of my study was to assess if human activities have affected the water quality and presence of disease indicators in the reservoir, as well as to establish baseline data to inform future monitoring efforts. Thus, I measured several physico-chemical and biological parameters and compared my findings with international and national guidelines for drinking water. The findings of this study
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will be shared with, and recommendations will be made to, key community stakeholders, the Adamawa State Water Board authority, and the Upper Benue River Basin Authority.
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HYPOTHESES
Null Hypothesis: There are no notable differences between measured water-quality parameters of the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, and international and national standards for drinking water.
Research Hypothesis: Measured water-quality parameters of the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, fall below international and national standards for drinking water.
AIMS & OBJECTIVES
Aims:
To assess overall water quality and presence of disease indicators in the Kiri Dam reservoir in Shelleng Local Government Area, Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.
To establish baseline data for monitoring of the Kiri reservoir.
Objectives:
To establish key parameters for the reservoir, including physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
To evaluate whether, and which, indicator microorganisms are present in the water.
To compare my findings with international and national standards for drinking water.
To make recommendations to the state government (Ministry of Environment) and public health authorities.
To share my findings with communities around the reservoir.
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